The Role of Honeybees in Forensic Evidence Detection: Review of Their Application in Environmental and Criminal Investigations
Abstract
Honeybees (Apis mellifera) have emerged as a promising tool in forensic science because of their distinctive biological and behavioral characteristics. This review investigates the role of honeybees in the detection of forensic evidence, emphasizing their use in criminal and environmental investigations. Honeybees have exceptional olfactory abilities that can be utilized to identify a diverse array of substances, such as illegal drugs and explosives, through associative learning and conditioning techniques. Furthermore, their sensitivity to ecological changes makes them effective bioindicators, capable of reflecting the levels of environmental health and contamination. The incorporation of honeybees into forensic entomology offers a unique method of ecological monitoring and crime scene analysis. Nevertheless, to improve their efficacy in forensic applications, it is necessary to address obstacles such as ethical considerations, legal admissibility of evidence, and behavioral variability. This review emphasizes the necessity of standardized methodologies and interdisciplinary collaboration to capitalize on the distinctive characteristics of honeybees in forensic science, thereby facilitating the development of innovative detection strategies and enhanced environmental monitoring.
References
- Almeida, M. O., Oloris, S. C. S., Faria, V. H. F., Ribeiro, M. C. M., Cantini, D. M., & Soto-Blanco, B. (2020). Optimization of method for pesticide detection in honey by using liquid and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric detection. Foods, 9(10), 1368.
- Alotaibi, S. S., Sayed, S. M., Alosaimi, M., Alharthi, R., Banjar, A., Abdulqader, N., & Alhamed, R. (2020). Pollen molecular biology: Applications in the forensic palynology and future prospects: A review. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 27(5), 1185–1190.
- Amendt, J., Anderson, G., Campobasso, C., Dadour, I., Gaudry, E., Hall, M., Moretti, T., Sukontason, K., & Villet, M. (2015). Standard Practices (pp. 381–398). https://doi.org/10.1201/b18156-33
- Amendt, J., Campobasso, C. P., Gaudry, E., Reiter, C., LeBlanc, H. N., & JR Hall, M. (2007). Best practice in forensic entomology—standards and guidelines. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 121, 90–104.
- Amendt, J., Richards, C. S., Campobasso, C. Pietro, Zehner, R., & Hall, M. J. R. (2011). Forensic entomology: applications and limitations. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, 7, 379–392.
- Anderson, G. S., Byrd, J. H., & Castner, J. L. (2000). Insect succession on carrion and its relationship to determining time of death. Byrd and Castner (Eds.). Forensic Entomology: The Utility of Arthropods in ….
- Bell, K. L., Burgess, K. S., Okamoto, K. C., Aranda, R., & Brosi, B. J. (2016). Review and future prospects for DNA barcoding methods in forensic palynology. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 21, 110–116.
- Bell, K. L., Turo, K. J., Lowe, A., Nota, K., Keller, A., Encinas‐Viso, F., Parducci, L., Richardson, R. T., Leggett, R. M., & Brosi, B. J. (2023). Plants, pollinators and their interactions under global ecological change: The role of pollen DNA metabarcoding. Molecular Ecology, 32(23), 6345–6362.
- Ben, G., Hill, K., & Walter, T. (2016). The Role of Honey Bees as Pollinators in Natural Areas.
- Benecke, M. (1998). Six forensic entomology cases: description and commentary. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 43(4), 797–805.
- Bhuyan, P. R., Borah, B. K., Rajkumari, P., Borah, N., Bora, B., & Chaya, S. (n.d.). Forensic entomology: Unraveling the secrets of insect evidence.
- Bilandžić, N., Đokić, M., Sedak, M., Kolanović, B. S., Varenina, I., Končurat, A., & Rudan, N. (2011). Determination of trace elements in Croatian floral honey originating from different regions. Food Chemistry, 128(4), 1160–1164.
- Bortolotti, L., & Costa, C. (2014). Chemical communication in the honey bee society. Neurobiology of Chemical Communication.
- Botías, C., David, A., Horwood, J., Abdul-Sada, A., Nicholls, E., Hill, E., & Goulson, D. (2015). Neonicotinoid residues in wildflowers, a potential route of chronic exposure for bees. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(21), 12731–12740.
- Bromenshenk, J. J., Henderson, C. B., Seccomb, R. A., Welch, P. M., Debnam, S. E., & Firth, D. R. (2015). Bees as biosensors: chemosensory ability, honey bee monitoring systems, and emergent sensor technologies derived from the pollinator syndrome. Biosensors, 5(4), 678–711.
- Bullock, E. J., Schafsnitz, A. M., Wang, C. H., Broadrup, R. L., Macherone, A., Mayack, C., & White, H. K. (2020). Silicone wristbands as passive samplers in honey bee hives. Veterinary Sciences, 7(3), 86.
- Burkle, L. A., Marlin, J. C., & Knight, T. M. (2013). Plant-pollinator interactions over 120 years: loss of species, co-occurrence, and function. Science, 339(6127), 1611–1615.
- Byrd, J. H., & Tomberlin, J. K. (2019). Forensic entomology: the utility of arthropods in legal investigations. CRC press.
- Catalano, P., Della Sala, F., Cavaliere, M., Caputo, C., Pecoraro, D., Crispino, G., Lettera, S., Caioni, G., Esposito, M., & Verre, A. (2024). Use of honey bees and hive products as bioindicators to assess environmental contamination in targeted areas of the campania region (Italy). Animals, 14(10), 1446.
- Chauzat, M., Martel, A., Cougoule, N., Porta, P., Lachaize, J., Zeggane, S., Aubert, M., Carpentier, P., & Faucon, J. (2011). An assessment of honeybee colony matrices, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) to monitor pesticide presence in continental France. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 30(1), 103–111.
- Ćosović Bajić, S. (2014). Analysis of the possibility of utalization of honey bees in explosive detection. Polytechnic and Design, 2(1), 58–63.
- Couvillon, M. J., Al Toufailia, H., Butterfield, T. M., Schrell, F., Ratnieks, F. L. W., & Schürch, R. (2015). Caffeinated Forage Tricks Honeybees into Increasing Foraging and Recruitment Behaviors. Current Biology, 25(21), 2815–2818. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.052
- Couvillon, M. J., Schürch, R., & Ratnieks, F. L. W. (2014). Waggle dance distances as integrative indicators of seasonal foraging challenges. PloS One, 9(4), e93495.
- Dyer, A. G., Neumeyer, C., & Chittka, L. (2005). Honeybee (Apis mellifera) vision can discriminate between and recognise images of human faces. Journal of Experimental Biology, 208(24), 4709–4714.
- Filipi, J., Stojnić, V., Muštra, M., Gillanders, R. N., Jovanović, V., Gajić, S., Turnbull, G. A., Babić, Z., Kezić, N., & Risojević, V. (2022). Honeybee-based biohybrid system for landmine detection. Science of the Total Environment, 803, 150041.
- Fremdt, H., & Amendt, J. (2014). Species composition of forensically important blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and flesh flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) through space and time. Forensic Science International, 236, 1–9.
- Gebremedhn, H., Tadesse, A., & Belay, T. (2014). Relating climatic factors to foraging behavior of honeybees (Apis mellifera) during blooming period of Guizotia abyssinica (LF). Livestock Research for Rural Development, 26(4), 2–7.
- Giurfa, M. (2007). Behavioral and neural analysis of associative learning in the honeybee: a taste from the magic well. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 193(8), 801–824.
- Hadagali, M. D., & Suan, C. L. (2017). Advancement of sensitive sniffer bee technology. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 97, 153–158.
- Hassona, N. M., & El-Wahed, A. A. A. (2023). Heavy metal concentrations of beeswax (Apis mellifera L.) at different ages. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 111(3), 26.
- Huyop, F., Wahab, R. A., Sujana, I. G. A., Antara, N. S., & Gunam, I. B. W. (2024). Using pollen DNA metabarcoding to trace the geographical and botanical origin of honey from Karangasem, Indonesia. Heliyon, 10(12).
- Ilić, D., Brkić, B., & Sekulić, M. T. (2024). Biomonitoring: Developing a beehive air volatiles profile as an indicator of environmental contamination using a sustainable in-field technique. Sustainability, 16(5), 1713.
- John Hollis. (2022). Honey bees and their honey could be a big help in solving police cases. https://www.gmu.edu/news/2022-01/honey-bees-and-their-honey-could-be-big-help-solving-police-cases
- Johnson, B. R. (2023). Honey bee biology.
- Kerk, W. C., & Chua, L. S. (2016). Sniffer bees as a good alternative for the current sniffing technology. Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, 6(4).
- Ketsekioulafis, I., Filandrianos, G., Katsos, K., Thomas, K., Spiliopoulou, C., Stamou, G., & Sakelliadis, E. I. (2024). Artificial Intelligence in Forensic Sciences: A Systematic Review of Past and Current Applications and Future Perspectives. Cureus, 16 (9), e70363.
- Khatun, M. A., Yoshimura, J., Yoshida, M., Suzuki, Y., Huque, R., Kelly, S. D., & Munshi, M. K. (2024). Isotopic characteristics (δ13C, δ15N, and δ18O) of honey from Bangladesh retail markets: Investigating sugar manipulation, botanical and geographical authentication. Food Chemistry, 435, 137612.
- Klein, A.-M., Vaissière, B. E., Cane, J. H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., & Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1608), 303–313.
- Lawfulness of an Emergency Measure - Neonicotinoids - Protection of Bees - Notification of Concerns, Pub. L. No. 1107/2009 (2020).
- Leitch, O., Anderson, A., Kirkbride, K. P., & Lennard, C. (2013). Biological organisms as volatile compound detectors: A review. Forensic Science International, 232(1–3), 92–103.
- Leone, L. (2022). Pesticides in Court: Ruling on the use of neonicotinoids in EU Member States. BioLaw Journal, 2022(4), 321–354.
- Loewen, C. (2018, February 26). Beekeeper’s $20K class-action suit goes ahead as evidence mounts of neonicotinoids’ effects. Cbc. https://www.cbc.ca/news
- Madea, B. (2014). Handbook of forensic medicine. John Wiley & Sons.
- Matuszewski, S. (2021). Post-mortem interval estimation based on insect evidence: current challenges. Insects, 12(4), 314.
- Menzel, R. (2014). Learning, memory, and “cognition” in honey bees. In Neurobiology of comparative cognition (pp. 237–292). Psychology Press.
- Miller Coyle, H. (2025). DNA Barcoding for Plant Genetics: A Role in Palynology. In Advances in Forensic Biology and Genetics (pp. 443–458). Springer.
- Milne, L. A., Bryant, V. M., & Mildenhall, D. C. (2004). Forensic palynology. In Forensic botany (pp. 112–146). CRC Press.
- Mishra, M., Bhunia, P., Sen, R., Bhunia, R., Gulia, J., Mondal, T., Zidane, Z., Saha, T., Chacko, A., & Raj, R. (2023). The Impact of Weather Change on Honey Bee Populations and Disease. Journal of Advanced Zoology, 44.
- Morice, B. D., Lord, W. D., Barthell, J. F., Jourdan, T. H., & Morris, T. L. (2020). Necrophagy in honey bees (Apis mellifera L.); a forensic application of scent foraging behavior. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 92(2), 423–431.
- Mortensen, A. N., Smith, B., & Ellis, J. D. (2015). The Social Organization of Honey Bees: ENY-166/IN1102, 11/2015. EDIS, 2015(9), 3. https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-in1102-2015
- Murcia-Morales, M., Vejsnæs, F., Brodschneider, R., Hatjina, F., Van der Steen, J. J. M., Oller-Serrano, J. L., & Fernández-Alba, A. R. (2023). Enhancing the environmental monitoring of pesticide residues through Apis mellifera colonies: Honey bees versus passive sampling. Science of The Total Environment, 884, 163847.
- Ozanne, S. E., & Hales, C. N. (2004). Olfaction: scent-triggered navigation in honeybees. Nature, 427(6973), 411.
- Rivers, D. B., & Dahlem, G. A. (2022). The science of forensic entomology. John Wiley & Sons.
- Rodacy, P. J., Bender, S. F. A., Bromenshenk, J. J., Henderson, C. B., & Bender, G. L. (2002). Training and deployment of honeybees to detect explosives and other agents of harm. SPIE Defense + Commercial Sensing. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110184499
- ROXANA, A.P.; KARLA, C.; CLAUDIU, I.N.; LUCIAN, C. (2025). BUGS TELL NO LIES: ENHANCING THE ROLE OF INSECTS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Entomology, 19–21 May 2025, MDPI: Basel, Switzerland. sciforum.net
- Ruvolo-Takasusuki, M. C. C., Ronqui, L., Barateiro-Stuchi, A. L. P., Araujo, M. C., Fermino, F., Santos, P. R., & de Toledo, V. de A. (2015). Biomonitoring the environmental quality by bees. IntechOpen London, UK.
- Sahoo, B. K., Pathak, M., Boruah, S., Sarmah, K., Ningthoujam, K., Sehgal, M., & Ikram, M. (2025). Integrating Sniffer Bees into Security and Defenses: Advancements in the Detection of Explosives and Illicit Substances. Biotica Publications, 155–172. https://doi.org/10.54083/978-81-986377-3-4_11
- Santos, W. E., Carneiro, L. T., Alves, A. C. F., Creão-Duarte, A. J., & Martins, C. F. (2014). Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) attracted to animal carcasses in the Brazilian dry forest and implications for forensic entomology. Sociobiology, 61(4), 490–493.
- Schott, M., Klein, B., & Vilcinskas, A. (2015). Detection of Illicit Drugs by Trained Honeybees (Apis mellifera). PLOS ONE, 10(6), e0128528. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128528
- Seeley, T. D. (2010). The Five Habits of Highly Effective Honeybees (and What We Can Learn from Them): From Honeybee Democracy (Vol. 5). Princeton University Press.
- Shaw, J. A., Nugent, P. W., Johnson, J., Bromenshenk, J. J., Henderson, C. B., & Debnam, S. (2010). Long-wave infrared imaging for non-invasive beehive population assessment. Optics Express, 19(1), 399–408.
- Shaw, J. A., Seldomridge, N. L., Dunkle, D. L., Nugent, P. W., Spangler, L. H., Bromenshenk, J. J., Henderson, C. B., Churnside, J. H., & Wilson, J. J. (2005). Polarization lidar measurements of honey bees in flight for locating land mines. Optics Express, 13(15), 5853–5863. https://doi.org/10.1364/OPEX.13.005853
- Smith, K. E., Weis, D., Amini, M., Shiel, A. E., Lai, V. W.-M., & Gordon, K. (2019). Honey as a biomonitor for a changing world. Nature Sustainability, 2(3), 223–232.
- Smith, K. G. V. (1986). A manual of forensic entomology.
- Soares, K. O., Lima, M. V, Evangelista-Rodrigues, A., Silva, A. A. F., Silva, F. J. de A., Lima, A. I. B. L. C., & Da Costa, C. R. G. (2021). Factors influencing the foraging behavior of Trigona spinipes (Apidae, Meliponinae). Biological Rhythm Research, 52(7), 1109–1119.
- Tomberlin, J. K., Mohr, R., Benbow, M. E., Tarone, A. M., & Vanlaerhoven, S. (2011). A roadmap for bridging basic and applied research in forensic entomology. Annual Review of Entomology, 56(1), 401–421.
- Valappil, N. K. M., Viswanathan, P. M., Hamza, V., & Sabarathinam, C. (2022). Isoscapes to address the regional precipitation trends in the equatorial region of Southeast Asia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 127, 103159.
- Ward, L. T., Hladik, M. L., Guzman, A., Winsemius, S., Bautista, A., Kremen, C., & Mills, N. J. (2022). Pesticide exposure of wild bees and honey bees foraging from field border flowers in intensively managed agriculture areas. Science of the Total Environment, 831, 154697.
- Whitfield, C. W., Ben-Shahar, Y., Brillet, C., Leoncini, I., Crauser, D., LeConte, Y., Rodriguez-Zas, S., & Robinson, G. E. (2006). Genomic dissection of behavioral maturation in the honey bee. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(44), 16068–16075.
- Wiltshire, P. E. J. (2016). Protocols for forensic palynology. Palynology, 40(1), 4–24.
- Winston, M. L. (1991). The biology of the honey bee. harvard university press.
- Zafeiraki, E., Sabo, R., Kasiotis, K. M., Machera, K., Sabová, L., & Majchrák, T. (2022). Adult honeybees and beeswax as indicators of trace elements pollution in a vulnerable environment: distribution among different apicultural compartments. Molecules, 27(19), 6629.
- Zavrtnik, S., Loborec, J., Kapelj, S., & Grčić, I. (2024). Environmental Biomonitoring of Heavy and Toxic Metals Using Honeybees and Their Products—An Overview of Previous Research. Sustainability, 16(19), 8526.
- Zhang, J., Wang, Y., Wurjihu, S., Ruan, H., Huang, Y., Guo, M., Kong, D., Luo, J., & Yang, M. (2024). Comprehensive analysis of neonicotinoids in Chinese commercial honey and pollen: A corresponding health risk assessment for non-targeted organisms. Science of The Total Environment, 919, 170937.
Downloads
Most read articles by the same author(s)
- Ahmed A. Rawwash, The Role of Honeybees in Forensic Evidence Detection: Review of Their Application in Environmental and Criminal Investigations , Emirati Journal of Law and Policing Studies: Vol. 1 No. 1 (2025): Emirati Journal of Law and Policing Studies